General History and Description of Temples

Devasthan Department welcomes you to Devasthan Rajasthan.

According to Indian tradition, temples are places of worship and abodes of deities. Every religion has places of worship, but for a place to be a temple, there must be a belief in God in a tangible, physical form that can be expressed through idols

Although the word "temple" is most popularly associated with Hindu places of worship, it is also present in other religions and sects, notably Buddhism and Jainism.

History

The word temple (mandir) is not very ancient in Sanskrit literature. In epics and sutra texts, words like Devalaya (abode of gods), Devayatan, Devakul, Devagriha, and Devasthana are more commonly used. The earliest mention of the word temple is found in the Shatapatha Brahmana. In most early texts, the word temple is used more in the sense of "residence." During the Vedic period, worship was mainly dedicated to natural deities, with an emphasis on rituals (yajna) rather than idol worship. Thus, there is no clear evidence of temples being constructed as places of deity worship during that time. Later, during the epic and Puranic ages, Vedic gods gradually became idolized, and temples as places of worship began to be built. Since then, an innumerable series of temples has evolved, continuing to this day in various forms.

Word and Linguistic Derivation:

The word mandir comes from Sanskrit, derived from the root mand (to rest or relax) and the suffix kirach. Originally, it referred to a dwelling or house, and over time, it came to mean a "house of God."

Some scholars derive it from the word man (mind), implying a place for spiritual contemplation, although this is not strictly grammatically accurate.

The English word "temple" originates from the Latin word templum. In ancient Greek religion, places of idol worship were called temples. Over time, under the influence of Abrahamic religions, the tradition of idol worship in temples became nearly extinct.

Different languages have different words for temple. For example, in Tamil, it is called Kovil; in Kannada, Devasthana or Gudi; in Telugu, Alayam; in Malayalam, Kshetram; in Arabic-Persian, Ma'bad; in Chinese, Simiao; and in Sinhalese, Pansal.

Temple Architecture

Every culture develops its own physical structures. When it comes to constructing places of worship, cultural norms influence the architectural design, reflected in religious architecture. There are classical regulations rooted in philosophical explanations, and elements from local culture and tradition. Based on structural features, temples are classified and defined

Generally, each temple has two main structural components:

• Sanctum (Garbha-griha): where the main deity's idol is installed.
• Mandapa (Pavilion): a hall for devotees.
• Around the sanctum, there is a circumambulatory path (pradakshina patha) allowing devotees to move systematically during worship and darshan (viewing the deity).

Above the sanctum is the Shikhara (spire), a major factor in temple style classification. Both the shikhara and the base (platform) are often intricately geometrical. In the Nagara style, the shikhara is composed of multiple smaller spires symbolizing infinity. Sometimes, flags are hoisted above the kalasha (finial).

Apart from the main mandapa, there can be smaller or semi-mandapas used for devotional activities like singing and dancing. Generally, the first mandapa was used for assembly (sabha-mandapa) and the second for music and dance performances (ranga-mandapa).

Temples were mainly constructed using stone, but brick usage is also widespread. Evidence of wooden temples dates back to the Mauryan era, especially in hilly regions where wooden structures are more common. Kathmandu in Nepal is named after Kastha Mandapa (wooden pavilion), signifying a beautiful combination of wood and bricks.

Styles of Temples

According to Indian architectural and sculptural traditions, especially for Hindu temples, there are three main styles:

However, this classification is quite broad. Over time and cultural differences, many variations and hybrid styles have developed. For example, the Himalayan regions like Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand have distinct hill styles, while the Northeast has a completely different style. In Rajasthan, medieval temples show Rajputana influence, and in the modern era, there are mixes with Greco-Roman or European styles.

The word Nagara comes from Nagar (city). Temples built primarily in cities were called Nagara temples. This style is prevalent mainly in Northern and Central India, stretching from the Himalayas to the Vindhya range, particularly north of the Narmada River.

According to architectural texts, key features of Nagara temples are:

• The structure is generally quadrangular from base to top.
• Fully developed Nagara temples consist of a sanctum, antechamber, mandapa, and sometimes a semi-mandapa aligned on a single axis.
• Upon adopting a square plan, slight projections appear on the corners, known as Asta.

The most prominent feature is the towering spire (shikhara) resembling a mountain peak above the sanctum. Sometimes, a simple raised roof is seen. It is believed that shikhara architecture developed significantly in North India after the 7th century. In some temples, the shikhara encompasses the sanctum entirely.

According to the major Shilpashastras (ancient Indian texts on architecture), there are eight principal components of the Nagara style temples:

• Adhishthana – The main base or foundation upon which the entire structure stands.
• Shikhar - The top portion of the temple or the upper part of the sanctum (garbhagriha).
• Kalash - The crowning element at the top of the shikhara, shaped like a pot or resembling one.
• Amalaka - The circular segment located just below the kalasha at the apex of the shikhara.

• Griva -The sloping upper portion of the shikhara.
• Kapot - The cornice or the projecting element above a door, window, wall, or pillar.
• Masuraka - The area between the foundation and the walls.
• Jhanga - The walls of the temple, particularly those of the sanctum (garbhagriha).

However, even these eight components are not considered complete or sufficient. The upper platform of the Adhishthana is known as Jagati. Beyond the main temple shikhara, additional domed halls (Mandapas) are constructed at intervals. These are called Mahamandapa, Mandapa, and Ardhamandapa respectively, decreasing in height and area. Doors and pillars often began to feature serpent-like (curved) ascents and descents, developing into arched gateways (Torana). The smaller spires attached to the main shikhara are known as Urushringa. The shikhara is also referred to as Vimana. Different parts of the temple may also have Gavaksha (decorative window-like features).

Since this style developed in South India, it is called the Dravida style. Most temples in Tamil Nadu belong to this category. In this style, the temple’s base is square-shaped, and the tower (shikhara) over the sanctum is prism-like or pyramidal, divided horizontally into multiple stories. At the top of the shikhara, instead of Amalaka and Kalasha, there is a Stupika (small dome). The key features of this style are the tall temples surrounded by massive enclosures. Within the premises, there are many small and large temples, halls, and water tanks. There is a reservoir called Kalyani or Pushkarini within the premises. The main entrance to the temple courtyard is called a Gopuram. Typically, there are also grand lamp pillars (Deepastambha) and flagposts (Dhwajastambha) within the courtyard.

The mixed form of Nagara and Dravida styles is called the Vesara style. The word Vesara is derived from the Kannada word Veshara, meaning "form". Because of the new type of form and appearance, it came to be known as Veshara, which later became Vesara or Besara.

In layout, it follows the Dravida style, but in appearance, it resembles the Nagara style. Temples of this style are the fewest in number. These temples were built between the Vindhya mountain range and the Krishna River. Karnataka and Maharashtra are considered the centers of Vesara temples. Notably, some temples built during the Rashtrakuta, Hoysala, and Chalukya dynasties belong to this style.

General Differences Between Nagara and Dravida Styles of Temples

Development

Temples are considered key agents in the secularization of religion and the simplification of worship practices in Indian religion and culture. They not only offered a simpler alternative to the increasingly complex tradition of yajnas (sacrificial rituals) but also played a crucial role in making religion accessible to the common people and universalizing religious practices.

It is believed that while the Rigveda emphasized prayer and the Yajurveda focused on rituals, thousands of devotional musical branches of the Samaveda existed concurrently (Sahasravartma Samaveda:), many of which, possibly devotional in nature, may have been associated with temples even at that time.

The modern Hindu temples we see today have evolved not only through gradual changes in Vedic tradition but also with significant influence from the temples of Buddhism and Jainism. Structures such as caves, stupas, and chaityas from these traditions have also contributed to this evolution. Some worship-like structures have been discovered in the Indus or Sarasvati civilizations as well, although nothing can be said with certainty about them.

The earliest remains of temples discovered are of simple construction with flat roofs. As idol worship gained popularity, temple architecture also evolved. It is likely that the art of temple construction began during the Mauryan period, although very few remnants from that time remain. Especially from the post-Kushan period up to the Gupta era, large-scale construction of temples for deity worship began, and subsequent dynasties created an extensive series of temples.

It is also believed that the current structural form of temples primarily originated from the Vaishnava tradition rather than Shaiva or Shakta traditions. Early Shaiva and Shakta temples were often open-air shrines, sometimes under a tree, at the boundary of a village or town, or in a community courtyard. Goddess temples were typically located at borders as protectors, while Shiva temples often served as public gathering spaces. Over time, pilgrim sites developed near forests, mountains, seas, and rivers away from towns, and temples were also established at these locations.

Kings played a major role in the construction of many temples. Most grand and magnificent temples were built by royal dynasties. Over time, many temples were built over generations or underwent reconstruction. The Devasthan Department itself has restored and reconstructed numerous temples, giving them a highly beautiful and sturdy form.

Idols in Temples

The existence of a temple implies the presence of an idol. Idols are made in two forms – in iconic (image) form and in symbolic form.

Most of Shiva’s idols are symbolic, in the form of a linga. Most of Vishnu’s idols are in iconic form. Idols of the Goddess (Devi) can be found in both forms.

Typically, idols are made of stone or metal. Idols made of clay are also worshipped, but they are usually immersed after the worship rituals. As an exception, wooden idols can be seen in Puri, Odisha.

In idol worship, it is generally essential for the idol to be complete — i.e., broken or partial idols are not usually worshipped. However, there are exceptions to this as well. For example, the idol in Puri, Odisha is incomplete. In Salasar, Rajasthan, the idol of Hanuman exists only up to the chest. Other such instances can also be found.

In some places, idols are not man-made but natural formations that resemble the image or symbol of a deity. For instance, at Amarnath, a naturally formed ice Shivalinga is worshipped.

Temples were primarily built for darshan (holy viewing) and worship, rather than for meditation or deep spiritual practice. In many temples, specific time slots are set for darshan. Since deities are regarded as divine beings in human form, arrangements are made for their food, rest, waking, and other daily routines.

Rituals of Worship and Offering of Bhog-Prasad

Along with darshan (holy viewing), temples also have established rituals for worship (pooja) and the offering of bhog-prasad (sanctified food). The rituals of deity worship are primarily based on the traditional customs used to welcome and honor a guest. Most of the rituals in deity worship resemble acts of hospitality — such as inviting the deity (aavahan), offering a seat (asana), washing the feet (paad-prakshalan), offering water for sipping (aachman), bathing, providing clothes, adorning the deity, creating a fragrant and illuminated atmosphere through incense (dhoop) and lamps (deep), offering food items (bhog), and receiving a portion of it as prasad. All materials offered to the deity can be collectively and concisely termed as bhog-rag.

Thinkers believe that the type of bhog offered to a deity can indicate which kind of deity was dominant during a particular phase of human development. According to them, every era gives birth to its own spiritual tendencies (yug-dharma), and based on those, a certain divine quality emerges — sometimes the qualities of Shiva, sometimes of Shakti (the Goddess), sometimes of Vishnu, or sometimes of the formless Brahman.

According to religious philosophers, during the age when humans were food-gatherers, Shiva became the primary deity of worship. That is why Shiva is offered mostly uncultivated items — datura, bhang (cannabis), mandar flowers, and milk. During the age of hunters, Kali became the main deity. Thus, her worship includes practices like animal sacrifice, liquor, and tantra. She remained the goddess of the impenetrable fortresses of monarchies.

When the era of agriculture and animal husbandry arrived, Vishnu became the main deity of worship, especially in the form of Krishna as a cowherd. Balarama, with his plough and pestle, also represents this phase. In the same way, the concept of divine incarnations (avatar-vad) reflects signs of evolutionary progression.

During the age of monarchies, God began to be depicted as a king.

This philosophical-historical progression in the concept of deities might not be of much importance to a devotee, as a devotee usually considers the deity they worship as the supreme and the first among all.

Sources of Information Related to Temples

The sources of information about temples are generally the same as those for historical knowledge. However, myths, beliefs, legends, and popular traditions also play a significant role in the context of temples. Typically, apart from inscriptions and scriptures, information is obtained from donation deeds, copper plates, ledgers, daily records, and government charters or royal decrees. In Rajasthan, additional information is also found in traditional narratives, chronicles (khyats), genealogies, and oral accounts.

Temple Styles in Rajasthan

Almost every architectural style of temple can be found in Rajasthan. Many temples are built in Rajputana's own distinctive style. Predominantly, the temples belong to the Nagara and Nagara-influenced Rajputana styles. Many temples are of archaeological importance and have been officially recognized by the Archaeological Survey of India or the State Archaeology Department.

In Viratnagar (Bairat) near Jaipur, remnants of a Mauryan-period temple have been discovered in the Bijak hills, considered among the oldest temple remains in India. According to an inscription found in Barnala village of Dausa district, there is evidence suggesting the existence of temples from the third century CE.

In many temples, the styles are so intermingled that it is difficult to classify them strictly according to traditional categories. For example, although the Dev Somnath Temple in Dungarpur is of Nagara style, it is multi-storied like Dravidian temples. Ranakpur Temple features a series of multiple spires (shikharas). Similarly, many temples have domed structures influenced by Mughal and European styles.

The main temple of the Dilwara Jain Temples at Mount Abu, famous for its exquisite internal carvings, has such a simple spire that it is hard to classify it into any particular style, whereas the spire of the Khartar Gachchha Temple at the entrance resembles the Vesara style. Such diversity is common in other temples as well.

Number of Temples in Rajasthan: The number of temples in Rajasthan is in the millions, and a definitive count is difficult. Under the supervision of the Devasthan Department alone, there are about 60,000 temples categorized into five groups. This number does not include temples managed by private trusts, unregistered temples in rural areas, or modern temples built by individuals or religious sects, which could collectively run into the millions.

Temple Assets in Rajasthan

The temple assets under the Devasthan Department of Rajasthan are spread across six states. These include a vast amount of movable and immovable property. There are over 2,000 residential and commercial buildings associated with these temples. Additionally, there are 16 rest houses and dharamshalas (pilgrim shelters). Thousands of bighas (units of area) of agricultural land are also associated with these temples.

Importance of Temples in Rajasthan

The temples of Rajasthan are significant not only as religious and spiritual centers but also as vital parts of cultural heritage and archaeological treasures. Because of their divinity and grandeur, they have become major attractions for pilgrims and tourists alike. Many temples witness the arrival of hundreds of thousands of devotees annually, who find themselves spiritually uplifted after visiting.

The Devasthan Department organizes religious events at various temples during festivals and other special occasions.